Will Ellis: The Case for Going Analogue – Research-Backed Teaching Approaches That Work

May 4, 2026

The research evidence for analogue approaches to teaching and learning is among the most consistent and replicable in educational psychology. This article documents the evidence base for 14 domains including handwriting, physical manipulatives, retrieval practice, direct instruction, relational teaching, cooperative learning, outdoor learning, unstructured play, and classroom dialogue. Many of these methods are among the highest-impact, lowest-cost interventions available to schools. The evidence is drawn from the EdTech Accountability Framework compiled by Will Ellis / Reclaim Childhood.

Evidence Ratings

● Strong ● Moderate ● Weak ● None
RatingWhat it means
StrongPeer-reviewed findings with sufficient scale and replication to inform policy, including null results.
ModerateIndependent but limited in scale or context.
WeakSome independent work but too small or methodologically limited.
NoneVendor data only, or no trial found.

Key Terms

TermDefinition
The Instrument TestA tool does nothing until the child acts on it (e.g. a word processor remains empty until the child types). An agent responds, adapts or produces output on the child’s behalf. The instrument test asks which is directing whom: if the child directs the tool, it may belong in the classroom; if the tool directs the child, it does not.
Architectural GroundsA platform can be restricted based on its design, regardless of trial outcomes. Where evidence also shows harm, both grounds apply.
Engagement is Not LearningClicking, responding and staying on task is behavioural engagement. Struggling with a concept, making connections and building knowledge is cognitive engagement. Platforms built to maximise the first often undermine the second. A child completing 200 Times Tables Rock Stars questions in a session may be behaviourally engaged throughout and cognitively engaged for almost none of it.

Table 3: Evidence for Analogue Approaches

Approach Key Finding Evidence Source
Writing and Note-Taking
Handwriting (vs typing) EEG study suggests handwriting activates wider brain connectivity than typing, though the sample was small and replication is needed. A separate study found children in handwriting groups outperformed typing groups on every post-test. Strong Van der Weel and Van der Meer (2023)
Physical textbooks and paper reading (vs screens) Two large meta-analyses consistently find paper beats screens for reading comprehension across all age groups. Jerrim et al. (2018) found the paper group scored roughly 20 points higher on PISA tests. The gap is larger for younger readers. Strong Delgado et al. (2018); Clinton-Lisell (2024); Jerrim et al. (2018)
Retrieval Practice
Low-stakes paper quizzing and retrieval practice One of the best-evidenced teaching strategies available. EEF rates it high impact for low cost. Karpicke and Roediger (2008) showed repeated retrieval beats repeated study. Karpicke and Blunt (2011) showed it also beats concept mapping. Strong Adesope et al. (2017); Karpicke and Roediger (2008); Karpicke and Blunt (2011)
Direct Instruction
Teacher-led direct instruction (Rosenshine’s Principles) Rosenshine (2012) looked at three separate bodies of classroom research and found they all pointed to the same things: daily review, small steps, frequent questions, guided then independent practice. Not one RCT but a convergence across decades of evidence. None of this is new, this was standard practice long before the tablet. Strong Rosenshine (2012)
Relational Teaching and Teacher-Student Relationships
Teacher-student relationship quality and academic outcomes The quality of the teacher-student relationship is one of the strongest predictors of both engagement and attainment in the research literature. Effects are largest for pupils who are already struggling. Negative relationships are associated with worse outcomes across both dimensions. Strong Roorda et al. (2011)
Learner-centred relationships Learner-centred teacher-student relationships show large positive effects on critical thinking, participation and satisfaction. One of the most consistent findings in educational psychology. Strong Cornelius-White (2007)
Collaborative and Peer Learning
Cooperative and peer learning Cooperative learning consistently outperforms both competitive and individualistic approaches on attainment and peer relationships. Every cooperative learning method tested showed a positive effect. Peer interaction promotes learning most when children are specifically asked to reach consensus rather than just work alongside each other. Strong Roseth, Johnson and Johnson (2008); Tenenbaum et al. (2020)
Embodied Learning and Physical Manipulation
Physical manipulatives in mathematics Counters, rods, tiles and similar materials produce consistent positive effects over abstract instruction. Effects are strongest for fractions and for pupils aged 7-11. Strong Carbonneau, Marley and Selig (2013)
Physical experience and science learning Hands-on manipulation of objects activates brain regions that later support understanding of abstract concepts. Active manipulation outperforms watching a demonstration, even on delayed tests. Strong Kontra et al. (2015)
Embodied action and cognitive development Children who physically manipulated materials in conservation tasks understood the concept significantly better than those who watched. 43 per cent of the active group fully grasped it versus 26 per cent in the observation group. Moderate Lozada and Carro (2016)
Low-Stimulation Environments
Classroom visual environment and learning A direct experimental study found that highly decorated classrooms increased off-task behaviour and reduced learning. Sparse classrooms produced better attention and higher scores. Strong Fisher, Godwin and Seltman (2014)
Classroom noise and auditory distraction Noise impairs reading comprehension, memory and listening in children. Effects are strongest for younger children and those with reading difficulties. Moderate Klatte, Bergstrom and Lachmann (2013)
Outdoor and Nature-Based Learning
Outdoor and nature-based learning Systematic review of 147 studies across 20 countries: benefits include increased engagement, some academic improvement, better social skills and improved self-concept. Nature exposure also supports attention restoration, allowing the directed attention used in classrooms to recover. Moderate Mann et al. (2022); Kuo, Barnes and Jordan (2019)
Unstructured Play
Unstructured play and executive function More time in less-structured activities predicts stronger self-directed executive function. The reverse is also true. Effect holds after controlling for IQ, age and background. Moderate Barker et al. (2014)
Play and child development American Academy of Pediatrics clinical review. Child-led play is essential for executive function, social competence and emotional regulation. Play acts as a biological buffer against toxic stress. Benefits are greatest when play is not adult-organised. Strong Yogman et al. (2018)
Productive Downtime and Boredom
Boredom and creative thinking Boredom increases creative thinking in subsequent tasks. Low-stimulation periods appear to trigger a mind-wandering state linked to divergent thinking. Note: this is not an argument for disengagement. It is about boredom as a precursor to creative thought. Moderate Mann and Cadman (2014)
Oral Language and Dialogue
Classroom discussion and comprehension Structured classroom discussion significantly improves reading comprehension, reasoning and engagement. Effects are consistent across primary and secondary settings. Strong Murphy et al. (2009)
Dialogic teaching in UK primary schools Structured classroom talk that encourages reasoning and argumentation improves literacy and engagement. Tested in UK primary schools and directly applicable to English curriculum contexts. Moderate Alexander (2018)
Drawing and Visual Art-Making
Drawing as a learning and memory tool Drawing information leads to significantly better memory retention than writing or passive study, engaging visual, physical and cognitive processes simultaneously. The act of drawing forces learners to commit to a specific representation of what they understand, which reveals gaps and strengthens encoding. Strong Fernandes et al. (2018); Ainsworth et al. (2011)
Music and Rhythm
Music training, rhythm and language skills Music training yields small but reliable improvements in phonological awareness and reading. Rhythmic competence is also a significant predictor of grammar awareness in children, suggesting music instruction supports language acquisition beyond musical skill alone. Moderate Sala and Gobet (2020); Gordon et al. (2015)
Reading Development
Systematic synthetic phonics instruction The most well-evidenced approach to early reading. Rose Review (2006) established it as the most effective method. Clackmannanshire study showed gains maintained seven years post-intervention. EEF: high impact, low cost. Strong Rose Review (2006); Clackmannanshire (2005)
Reading aloud and shared reading (teacher-led) Teacher reading aloud develops listening and comprehension. Interactive reading with questioning consistently supports vocabulary and print knowledge. Particularly effective for children at risk of reading difficulties. Moderate EEF Improving Literacy KS1 (2021); Swanson et al. (2011)
Physical Activity and Cognition
Physical activity and cognitive function Positive associations between physical activity and working memory, attention and executive function across multiple reviews. Effect sizes are modest and most evidence is associational. Active classroom breaks consistently improve on-task behaviour. Moderate Systematic review – Frontiers in Public Health (2020)

Source: Will Ellis / Reclaim Childhood – reclaimchildhoodmedia.substack.com

Disclaimer: We’ve created this overview to help busy parents quickly grasp the key findings. It should not be considered a substitute for reading the original study. For accuracy and complete context, please consult the source document.

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