The Evidence

Close Screens Open Minds has compiled the evidence in one library: decades of research, major institutional reports, and real-world data that prove what Big Tech doesn’t want you to know – screens in classrooms harm learning.

Disclaimer: We’ve created this overview to help busy parents quickly grasp the key findings. It should not be considered a substitute for reading the original study. For accuracy and complete context, please consult the source documents.

6-8x

Paper reading comprehension advantage over digital

6 Months

Learning advantage for paper-based exams vs screens

58%

More likely to get A’s by taking handwritten notes

89%

Of EdTech platforms surveil children

Sources: 6-8x paper advantage: Altamura, Vargas and Salmeron. Valencia University meta-analysis, 2023 (450,000 students). Playful reading on paper helps understanding more than if it is done through digital media – Valencia University. | 6 months exam advantage: Daisy Christodoulou Paper and OnScreen Assessments based on John Jerrim’s research, 2018 (randomized trial, 3,000+ students) | 58% more A’s with handwriting: Flanagan et al meta-analysis, 2024 (24 studies). “The Laptop That Ate Your Child’s Classroom” by Jean Twenge from the New York Times Opinion. | 89% surveillance: Human Rights Watch investigation, 2022 (49 countries, 163 products). Article “Online Learning Products Enabled Surveillance of Children.”

Research

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Education Declines When Screens Enter the Classroom

The more screens in class, the lower the scores – proven across every major international assessment.

International Testing Shows the Pattern

TIMSS, PISA, PIRLS all confirm the same result.

Students who use no computers at all consistently score highest across subjects, countries, and testing cycles.

Key Findings

TIMSS: Daily computer users scored 41 points lower in maths, 51 points lower in science – equivalent to 1.5 letter grades.1
PISA: When tests moved online in 2015, scores dropped 14 points across the board.1
PIRLS: Online reading tests in 2021 saw 27-point average score drop.1

Sources:

  1. Horvath, J.C. (2025). The Digital Delusion.

Large-Scale Studies Confirm

Hundreds of thousands of students, decades of research.

“Educational ICT resources are significantly and negatively correlated with student academic performance.”

Key Findings

MIT Review (2019): 126 studies found computers alone don’t improve grades or test scores.1
 
Twenge (2025): Test scores fell more in countries where students used devices more.2
 
Horvath: “Investing in air conditioning has more impact than laptops.”3

Sources:

  1. Bulman & Fairlie (2019). Technology and Education | Valverde-Berrocoso et al (2022). Educational Technology and Student Performance, Sustainability. | Horvath, J.C. (2024). After Babel/Substack.
  2. Wang & Wang (2023). Studies in Educational Evaluation. | Twenge, J.M. (2025). Journal of Adolescence. | Salmeron, Vargas, Delgado and Baron (2022).
  3. Horvath, J.C. (2024). After Babel/Substack.

What Happens in Real Classrooms

When researchers observe actual device use.

Even 30 minutes of digital device use in class negatively impacts reading comprehension scores.

Key Findings

300,000+ students: Digital activities in language arts “could well be hampering student reading development.”1
 
College students: Spent 40% of class time on social media, email, videos – not classwork.2
 
6,000 students: App use reduced grades, increased stress, even affected roommates.3

Sources:

  1. Salmerón et al (2022). Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. | Ravizza et al (2017). Psychological Science | Day et al (2021). Computers & Education
  2. Barwick et al (2025). Economic Research Journal.
  3. Twenge, J.M. (2024). The New York Times.

Reading on Paper Better Than on Screen

Over 20 years of research shows the same result: paper beats screens for comprehension.

Two Decades of Consistent Evidence

The advantage of paper has increased since 2000.

If a student spends 10 hours reading on paper, their comprehension will be 6-8 times greater than reading digitally.

Key Studies

Valencia (2018): Meta-analysis of 54 studies confirms paper advantage
 
Valencia (2023): 6-8× comprehension advantage for paper
 
Columbia (2024): Clear advantage for “deeper reading” on paper
 
Oslo (2024): Screens lead to shallow processing; students unaware

Sources: Delgado et al (2018). Educational Research Review. | Delgado et al (2023). Review of Educational Research. | Singer & Alexander (2017). | Review of Educational Research. | Columbia University Teachers College (2024). The Guardian. | Jensen et al (2024). Computers & Education.

Why Screens Fail for Reading

The medium shapes the strategy.

“Screen-based reading triggers an unconscious shift from deep comprehension to shallow skimming.”

The Science

Digital texts lack fixed spatial layout – the scaffold that supports memory collapses
 
More time spent browsing, scanning, keyword spotting; less in-depth reading
 
Decreasing sustained attention noted across studies

Sources: Liu (2005). Journal of Documentation. |  Liao et al (2024). Trends in Cognitive Sciences. | Horvath, J.C. (2025). The Digital Delusion. 

Brain Science Confirms the Difference

Neuroscience reveals deeper processing for print.

Brain imaging shows deeper semantic encoding for print than digital texts.

What Happens

E-readers activate reward systems, making it hard to unwind
 
Screen reading delays melatonin release by an hour
 
Brain doesn’t discriminate – all screens signal “new information”

Sources: Bae et al (2024). PLOS ONE | Hansen, A. (2022). The Attention Fix.

Exams on Paper Better Than on Screen

The “mode effect” lowers scores for all students when tests move online.

The Mode Effect

Everyone does worse on screens

Paper-based test takers scored 20 points higher – equivalent to 6 months of additional schooling.

The Evidence

UCL PISA Analysis: Randomized study showed clear 6-month advantage
 
PISA 2015: 14-point drop when tests moved online
 
PIRLS 2021: 27-point drop acknowledged by test designers

Sources: Jerrim et al (2018). Oxford Review of Education. | Horvath, J.C. (2025). The Digital Delusion. | Christodoulou, D. No More Marking Substack.

Writing by Hand Better Than Typing

Handwriting doesn’t just capture information—it transforms how we think.

Handwriting Builds Better Learning

58% more likely to get A’s

Students who typed notes were 75% more likely to fail the course than those who wrote by hand.

The Data

24 studies: Handwritten notes = 58% more A’s
 
Doubled effect: When reviewing notes before exams
 
Professor Adam Grant: “The pen is mightier than the keyboard”

Sources: Flanagan et al (2024). Educational Psychology Review. | Grant, A. (2024). X/Twitter | Twenge, J.M. (2024). The New York Times.

Why Handwriting Works

Handwriting is thinking

“When we write by hand, we don’t just record thoughts, we shape them.”

The Mechanism

Handwriting is slow – forces focus on meaning, summarizing, reorganizing
 
Activates broader brain networks than typing
 
The arc of wrist, weight of pen – extends cognition beyond brain

Sources: Horvath, J.C. (2025). The Digital Delusion. | Taurisano, P. (2025). Neuroscience News.

Handwriting Develops Essential Skills

Our hands help our brains learn

Writing and reading draw on similar neural systems – strengthening one helps develop the other.

What’s Lost

Tech-heavy students show impaired handwriting and weaker literacy
 
Students neglect spelling, grammar with auto-correct
 
Lifelong consequences for language development

Sources: Horvath, J.C. (2025). The Digital Delusion. | Suggate et al (2025). Educational Psychology Review. | Haidt, J. (2025). X/Twitter.

Screen-Based Homework Harms Learning and Health

Evening screen use disrupts sleep and provides endless distraction.

Sleep Disruption

Melatonin delayed by an hour

“Kids on screens in the evening will be more tired, less emotionally regulated, more prone to getting triggered.”

The Impact

Poor sleep affects prefrontal cortex cognitive processes
 
Reduces daytime alertness and ability to learn
 
Huberman: “We’ll look back and realize this is the junk food of our era”

Sources: Chatterjee & Huberman (2022). Feel Better, Live More Podcast | Silva et al (2022). Sleep Medicine Reviews.

Endless Distraction at Home

YouTube instead of homework

“When we write by hand, we don’t just record thoughts, we shape them.”

The Problem

The same device for learning becomes the primary obstacle to it
 
Students tempted to endless loops of videos
 
No separation between school work and entertainment

Sources:

Sources: Twenge, J.M. (2024). 10 Rules for Raising Kids in a High-Tech World.

Why Screens Disrupt Learning: The Mechanisms

Understanding how technology undermines the fundamental processes of learning.

Attention Collapse

Six minutes before distraction

Students spend 24-38 minutes of every hour off-task when using laptops in class.

The Reality

Average student lasts less than 6 minutes before accessing social media
 
Even paid to focus, 40% can’t resist multitasking
 
Multitasking slows us down, lowers accuracy, stops learning

Sources: Horvath, J.C. (2025). The Digital Delusion. | Jared Cooney Horvath. After Babel: The EdTech Revolution Has Failed.

Lost Empathy and Human Connection

Algorithms can’t replicate teachers

Empathy is a core biological driver of learning – and it depends on real-time human connection.

What’s Lost

Students lose engagement and ability to push through frustration
 
No algorithm can replicate teacher-student resonance
 
Children lose one of the most powerful learning tools we know

Sources: Horvath, J.C. (2025). The Digital Delusion.

Failed Transfer

Skills stay trapped online

Skills developed offline are more robust, varied, and embodied than those learned online.

The Problem

Students who learn online become stuck – unable to export learning
 
Transfer is critical for skills meant to shape how we think and act
 
Real-world application fails when foundation is digital

Sources: Horvath, J.C. (2025). The Digital Delusion.

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